Relating pore fabric geometry to acoustic and permeability anisotropy in Crab Orchard Sandstone: A laboratory study using magnetic ferrofluid

Pore fabric anisotropy is a common feature of many sedimentary rocks. In this paper we report results from a comparative study on the anisotropy of a porous sandstone (Crab Orchard) using anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS), acoustic wave velocity and fluid permeability techniques. Initially, we characterise the anisotropic pore fabric geometry by impregnating the sandstone with magnetic ferro-fluid and measuring its AMS. The results are used to guide subsequent measurements of the anisotropy of acoustic wave velocity and fluid permeability. These three independent measures of anisotropy are then directly compared. Results show strong positive correlation between the principal directions given from the AMS, velocity anisotropy and permeability anisotropy. Permeability parallel to the macroscopic crossbedding observed in the sandstone is 240% higher than that normal to it. P and S-wave velocity anisotropy and AMS show mean values of 19.1%, 4.8% and 3.8% respectively, reflecting the disparate physical properties measured

The microscopic origin of thermal cracking in rocks: An investigation by simultaneous time-of-flight neutron diffraction and acoustic emission monitoring

We demonstrate that neutron diffraction measurements make it possible to quantify elastic strains within the interior of solid samples, and thus have great potential for addressing a wide range of problems connected with the characterization of the mechanical properties of geological materials. We use the time-of-flight neutron diffraction technique, in combination with acoustic emission monitoring, to study the evolution of thermal strain within the interior of samples of a pure quartzite during slow heating, and the onset of the associated thermal cracking. Thermal cracking commences around 180 degreesC when the thermal strain deficit along the a-axes of quartz grains induces a thermal stress that is close to the bulk tensile strength of the rock

Imaging slow failure in triaxially deformed Etna basalt using 3D acoustic-emission location and X-ray computed tomography

We have deformed basalt from Mount Etna (Italy) in triaxial compression tests under an effective confining pressure representative of conditions under a volcanic edifice (40 MPa), and at a constant strain rate of 5 similar to 10(-6) s(-1). Despite containing a high level of pre-existing microcrack damage, Etna basalt retains a high strength of 475 MPa. We have monitored the complete deformation cycle through contemporaneous measurements of axial strain, pore volume change, compressional wave velocity change and acoustic emission (AE) output. We have been able to follow the complete evolution of the throughgoing shear fault without recourse to any artificial means of slowing the deformation. Locations of AE events over time yields an estimate of the fault propagation velocity of between 2 and 4 mm. s(-1). We also find excellent agreement between AE locations and post-test images from X-ray microtomography scanning that delineates deformation zone architecture

Fracture Properties of Nash Point Limestone and Implications for Fracturing of Layered Carbonate Sequences

Carbonate reservoirs accommodate a significant proportion of global hydrocarbon reserves. However they are often tight and permeability is therefore usually dependent on either flow through existing fractures or through those produced by hydraulic stimulation. Hence, understanding how fracture networks develop in carbonate reservoir rocks is key to efficient and effective production. However, despite their prevalence as reservoir rocks, there is a paucity of data on key fracture properties of carbonate rocks, particularly in more than one orientation. Here, therefore we report measurements of both the tensile strength and fracture toughness of Nash Point limestone in the three principal fracture orientations to determine what effect any mechanical anisotropy might have on fracture propagation. We find Nash Point limestone to be essentially isotropic in terms of both its microstructure and its fracture properties. When comparing the fracture toughness of Nash Point limestone with that of others limestones, we find that fracture toughness decreases with increasing porosity, although this dependency is not as strong as found in other porous rocks. Finally, as many so-called carbonate reservoirs actually comprise layered sequences, we extend our analysis to consider the layered sequence of limestones and shales at Nash Point. We find that the fracture toughness of Nash Point limestone is higher than Nash Point shale but that the fracture energy is lower. We therefore discuss how the implications of fracturing through multi-layered sequences could be explored in future work

Imaging compaction band propagation in Diemelstadt sandstone using acoustic emission locations

We report results from a conventional triaxial test performed on a specimen of Diemelstadt sandstone under an effective confining pressure of 110 MPa; a value sufficient to induce compaction bands. The maximum principal stress was applied normal to the visible bedding so that compaction bands propagated parallel to bedding. The spatio-temporal distribution of acoustic emission events greater than 40 dB in amplitude, and associated with the propagation of the first compaction band, were located in 3D, to within +/- 2 mm, using a Hyperion Giga-RAM recorder. Event magnitudes were used to calculate the seismic b- value at intervals during band growth. Results show that compaction bands nucleate at the specimen edge and propagate across the sample at approximately 0.08 mm s(-1). The seismic b-value does not vary significantly during deformation, suggesting that compaction band growth is characterized by small scale cracking that does not change significantly in scale

Role of void space geometry in permeability evolution in crustal rocks at elevated pressure

[1] A key consequence of the presence of void space within rock is their significant influence upon fluid transport properties. In this study, we measure changes in elastic wave velocities (P and S) contemporaneously with changes in permeability and porosity at elevated pressure for three rock types with widely different void space geometries: a high‐porosity sandstone (Bentheim), a tight sandstone (Crab Orchard), and a microcracked granodiorite (Takidani). Laboratory data are then used with the permeability models of Guéguen and Dienes and Kozeny‐Carman to investigate the characteristics that different void space geometries impart to measured permeabilities. Using the Kachanov effective medium theory, elastic wave velocities are inverted, permitting the recovery of crack density evolution with increasing effective pressure. The crack densities are then used as input to the microcrack permeability model of Guéguen and Dienes. The classic Kozeny‐Carman approach of Walsh and Brace is also applied to the measured permeability data via a least squares fit in order to extract tortuosity data. We successfully predict the evolution of permeability with increasing effective pressure, as directly measured in experiments, and report the contrast between permeability changes observed in rock where microcracks or equant pores dominate the microstructure. Additionally, we show how these properties are affected by anisotropy of the rock types via the measured anisotropic fabrics in each rock. The combined experimental and modeling results illustrate the importance of understanding the details of how rock microstructure changes in response to an external stimulus in predicting the simultaneous evolution of different rock physical properties

Effect of temperature on the permeability of lava dome rocks from the 2004–2008 eruption of Mount St. Helens

As magma ascends to shallow levels in the volcanic conduit, volatile exsolution can produce a dramatic increase in the crystal content of the magma. During extrusion, low porosity, highly crystalline magmas are subjected to thermal stresses which generate permeable microfracture networks. How these networks evolve and respond to changing temperature has significant implications for gas escape and hence volcano explosivity. Here, we report the first laboratory experimental study on the effect of temperature on the permeability of lava dome rocks under environmental conditions designed to simulate the shallow volcanic conduit and lava dome. Samples were collected for this study from the 2004–2008 lava dome eruption of Mount St. Helens (Washington State, USA). We show that the evolution of microfracture networks, and their permeability, depends strongly on temperature changes. Our results show that permeability decreases by nearly four orders of magnitude as temperature increases from room temperature to 800 °C. Above 800 °C, the rock samples become effectively impermeable. Repeated cycles of heating leads to sample compaction and a reduction in fracture density and therefore a decrease in permeability. We argue that changes in eruption regimes from effusive to explosive activity can be explained by strongly decreasing permeability caused by repeated heating of magma, conduit walls and volcanic plugs or domes. Conversely, magma becomes more permeable as it cools, which will reduce explosivity

Laboratory Simulation of Volcano Seismicity

The physical processes generating seismicity within volcanic edifices are highly complex and not fully understood. We report results from a laboratory experiment in which basalt from Mount Etna volcano (Italy) was deformed and fractured. The experiment was monitored with an array of transducers around the sample to permit full-waveform capture, location, and analysis of microseismic events. Rapid post-failure decompression of the water-filled pore volume and damage zone triggered many low-frequency events, analogous to volcanic long-period seismicity. The low frequencies were associated with pore fluid decompression and were located in the damage zone in the fractured sample; these events exhibited a weak component of shear (double-couple) slip, consistent with fluid-driven events occurring beneath active volcanoes

Fault reactivation and strain partitioning across the brittle-ductile transition

The so-called “brittle-ductile transition” is thought to be the strongest part of the lithosphere, and defines the lower limit of the seismogenic zone. It is characterized not only by a transition from localized to distributed (ductile) deformation, but also by a gradual change in microscale deformation mechanism, from microcracking to crystal plasticity. These two transitions can occur separately under different conditions. The threshold conditions bounding the transitions are expected to control how deformation is partitioned between localized fault slip and bulk ductile deformation. Here, we report results from triaxial deformation experiments on pre-faulted cores of Carrara marble over a range of confining pressures, and determine the relative partitioning of the total deformation between bulk strain and on-fault slip. We find that the transition initiates when fault strength (σ_{f}) exceeds the yield stress (σ_{y}) of the bulk rock, and terminates when it exceeds its ductile flow stress (σflow). In this domain, yield in the bulk rock occurs first, and fault slip is reactivated as a result of bulk strain hardening. The contribution of fault slip to the total deformation is proportional to the ratio (σ_{f} − σ_{y})/(σ_{flow} − σ_{y}). We propose an updated crustal strength profile extending the localized-ductile transition toward shallower regions where the strength of the crust would be limited by fault friction, but significant proportions of tectonic deformation could be accommodated simultaneously by distributed ductile flow

Influence of gouge thickness and grain size on permeability of macrofractured basalt

Fractures allow crystalline rocks to store and transport fluids, but fracture permeability can also be influenced significantly by the existence or absence of gouge and by stress history. To investigate these issues, we measured the water permeability of macrofractured basalt samples unfilled or infilled with gouge of different grain sizes and thicknesses as a function of hydrostatic stress and also under cyclic stress conditions. In all experiments, permeability decreased with increasing effective pressure, but unfilled fractures exhibited a much greater decrease than gouge-filled fractures. Macrofractures filled with fine-grained gouge had the lowest permeabilities and exhibited the smallest change with pressure. By contrast, the permeability changed significantly more in fractures filled with coarser-grained gouge. During cyclic pressurization, permeability decreased with increasing cycle number until reaching a minimum value after a certain number of cycles. Permeability reduction in unfilled fractures is accommodated by both elastic and inelastic deformation of surface asperities, while measurements of the particle size distribution and compaction in gouge-filled fractures indicate only inelastic compaction. In fine-grained gouge this is accommodated by grain rearrangement, while in coarser-grained gouge it is the result of both grain rearrangement and comminution. Overall, sample permeability is dominated by the gouge permeability, which decreases with increasing thickness and is also sensitive to the grain size and its distribution. Our results imply that there is a crossover depth in the crust below which the permeability of well-mated fractures (e.g., joints) becomes lower than that of gouge-filled fractures (e.g., shear faults)